History Complete Syllabus Revision - Class 10 ICSE Hindi

Modern Indian and World History: Key Movements, Events, and Institutions

First War of Indian Independence (Revolt of 1857)

The Revolt of 1857, also called the First War of Indian Independence, was a major uprising against British rule. The focus for exams is on its causes and consequences, as this chapter consistently yields high-weightage questions.

• Causes:
  • Political: Policy of Expansion (Battle of Plassey 1757, Battle of Buxar), Doctrine of Lapse (introduced by Lord Dalhousie), Subsidiary Alliance (introduced by Lord Wellesley), annexation of states like Jhansi (1853), Satara, Nagpur, etc.
  • Socio-Religious: Interference with Indian customs (ban on…

Modern Indian and World History: Key Movements, Events, and Institutions

First War of Indian Independence (Revolt of 1857)

The Revolt of 1857, also called the First War of Indian Independence, was a major uprising against British rule. The focus for exams is on its causes and consequences, as this chapter consistently yields high-weightage questions.

• Causes:
  • Political: Policy of Expansion (Battle of Plassey 1757, Battle of Buxar), Doctrine of Lapse (introduced by Lord Dalhousie), Subsidiary Alliance (introduced by Lord Wellesley), annexation of states like Jhansi (1853), Satara, Nagpur, etc.
  • Socio-Religious: Interference with Indian customs (ban on Sati 1829, Widow Remarriage Act 1856), racial discrimination, property laws favoring Christian converts, missionary activities, taxation of religious institutions.
  • Economic: Exploitation of resources, drain of wealth, high taxes on peasants, decline of local industries due to free trade policy favoring British goods, land revenue policies harming farmers and zamindars.
  • Military: Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers, General Service Enlistment Act 1856, deprivation of allowances, introduction of Enfield rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat.
• Immediate Cause: The Enfield rifle cartridge incident and the actions of Mangal Pandey.
• Consequences:
  • End of East India Company rule; power transferred to the British Crown.
  • Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: promise of non-interference in social/religious matters, equal treatment, and amnesty for non-violent participants.
  • End of Mughal and Maratha power.
  • Policy of Divide and Rule initiated.
  • Changes in army structure to increase European ratio.
  • Rise of nationalism and unity among Indians.

Growth of Nationalism in India

Nationalism refers to the feeling of unity and oneness among people with common history, language, and culture, motivating them to form a nation. Several factors contributed to the rise of nationalism in India.

• Economic Exploitation: British policies impoverished peasants, artisans, and the working class.
• Repressive Colonial Policies: Grand Delhi Durbar (1877), Vernacular Press Act (1878, by Lord Lytton), Indian Arms Act (1878), reduction of ICS exam age, Ilbert Bill controversy (1883, Lord Ripon).
• Social Reform Movements: Led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj, abolition of Sati, promotion of women’s education), Jyotiba Phule (Satyashodhak Samaj, women and lower caste upliftment), Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Vivekananda.
• Role of the Press: Newspapers like Amrit Bazar Patrika, Tribune, Times of India, and vernacular papers spread nationalist ideas and awareness.
• Formation of Political Associations: Landholders’ Society (1838), East India Association (Dada Bhai Naoroji, 1866), Indian Association (Surendranath Banerjee, 1876), Indian National Conference (1883).

Formation and Objectives of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed to provide a platform for Indians to voice their demands and promote unity.

• Formation: Initiated by A.O. Hume, first session in Bombay (28 December 1885), presided by W.C. Bonnerjee, attended by 72 delegates.
• Objectives:
  • Promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers.
  • Present genuine demands to the government.
  • Develop national unity irrespective of religion or caste.
  • Train people in political and public opinion.
• First Two Sessions: 1885 (Bombay, W.C. Bonnerjee), 1886 (Calcutta, Dada Bhai Naoroji).

Early Nationalist Phase (Moderates)

Early nationalists (moderates) believed in constitutional methods and loyal cooperation with the British, aiming for reforms rather than complete independence.

• Key Leaders: Dada Bhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee, W.C. Bonnerjee.
• Beliefs:
  • British rule could be reformed for Indian benefit.
  • Demanded constitutional changes, increased Indian representation, reduction of land revenue, and protection of peasants.
• Methods:
  • Constitutional agitation: meetings, speeches, petitions, use of press.
  • Three P’s: Petition, Prayer, Protest (peaceful, non-violent).
• Contributions:
  • Dada Bhai Naoroji: “Grand Old Man of India,” Drain of Wealth theory, “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.”
  • Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Demanded reforms, separation of judiciary and executive, reduction of salt tax, compulsory primary education.
  • Surendranath Banerjee: First Indian to pass ICS, founded Indian Association, edited “Bengalee,” wrote “Nation in the Making.”

Assertive Nationalist Phase (Radicals)

Assertive nationalists (radicals) believed in direct action, mass mobilization, and complete independence.

• Key Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal).
• Methods:
  • Swadeshi (use of Indian goods), Boycott (foreign goods), National education, Passive resistance (non-violent but assertive).
  • Revival of Indian festivals (Ganpati, Shivaji) to foster unity.
• Partition of Bengal (1905): Announced by Lord Curzon, opposed as a divide-and-rule tactic; led to Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
• Surat Split (1907): Congress split into moderates and radicals over methods and leadership.
• Contributions:
  • Tilak: “Swaraj is my birthright,” started Kesari and Maratha newspapers, led Home Rule League.
  • Bipin Chandra Pal: Father of Revolutionary Thought, promoted national education, opposed caste system.
  • Lala Lajpat Rai: “Sher-e-Punjab,” led All India Trade Union Congress, started “Young India” magazine, involved in Arya Samaj and Servants of People Society.

Formation of Muslim League and Lucknow Pact

The All India Muslim League was formed in 1906 to represent Muslim interests, influenced by British divide-and-rule policies and internal community concerns.

• Factors Leading to Formation:
  • British encouragement of separate Muslim identity.
  • Educational and economic backwardness among Muslims.
  • Hindi-Urdu controversy, opposition to Congress.
  • Shifting British policy to appeasement of Muslims post-1870.
• Objectives:
  • Promote loyalty to the British.
  • Protect and advance Muslim political rights.
  • Remove misunderstandings between Muslims and the government.
• Lucknow Pact (1916):
  • Agreement between Congress and Muslim League for joint political action.
  • Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims.
  • Reunification of Congress moderates and radicals.

Gandhian Era and Mass Movements

Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership introduced mass-based, non-violent movements for independence.

• Key Movements:
  • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Causes—Khilafat issue, Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Methods—boycott of schools, law courts, foreign goods, promotion of khadi. Suspended after Chauri Chaura incident (1922).
  • Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): Triggered by Simon Commission, Nehru Report, and demand for Purna Swaraj. Started with Salt March (Dandi March, 12 March 1930), breaking salt law. Included boycott of British goods, non-payment of taxes, and mass protests.
  • Quit India Movement (1942): Launched after failure of Cripps Mission and Japanese threat. “Do or Die” call by Gandhi. Leaders arrested, movement continued underground, parallel governments formed in some regions.
• Key Events:
  • Rowlatt Act (1919): Allowed detention without trial.
  • Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919): Massacre by General Dyer.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Ended Civil Disobedience temporarily.
  • Poona Pact (1932): Agreement between Gandhi and Ambedkar on reserved seats for depressed classes.

Forward Bloc, INA, and Subhas Chandra Bose

Subhas Chandra Bose advocated aggressive methods and international alliances for independence.

• Forward Bloc: Formed by Bose in 1939 after differences with Gandhi and Congress. Sought liberation of India with support from workers, peasants, and third-party nations.
• Indian National Army (INA): Initially formed by Mohan Singh, later led by Bose. Slogan: “Give me blood, I will give you freedom.” Women’s wing: Rani Jhansi Regiment (led by Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan).
• Objectives of INA:
  • Fight British with modern arms.
  • Organize Indians abroad for armed revolution.
  • Establish a provisional government of free India.
  • Motto: Unity, Faith, Sacrifice.

Independence and Partition of India

The final phase of the freedom struggle involved negotiations, plans, and eventual partition.

• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
  • Proposed a federal union with central and provincial governments.
  • Grouping of provinces, formation of Constituent Assembly (389 members).
  • Rejected Pakistan demand.
• Mountbatten Plan (1947):
  • Division into India and Pakistan.
  • Princely states free to join either or remain independent.
  • Boundary commissions for Punjab and Bengal.
  • Separate Constituent Assemblies for India and Pakistan.
• Indian Independence Act (1947):
  • Legalized partition, ended British authority.
  • Established two dominions: India and Pakistan.
  • Abolished British Parliament’s authority over India.

World Wars, Dictatorships, and International Institutions

The 20th century saw two world wars, rise of dictatorships, and the creation of global institutions.

• World War I (1914–1918):
  • Causes: Aggressive nationalism, imperialism, arms race, alliance system (Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy; Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia), Sarajevo Crisis (assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand).
  • Consequences: Treaty of Versailles (1919)—harsh terms on Germany, loss of territory, reparations, disarmament, League of Nations formed.
• Rise of Dictatorships:
  • Fascism (Italy, Mussolini): One-party rule, anti-democracy, aggressive nationalism, anti-communism.
  • Nazism (Germany, Hitler): Totalitarian state, Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, aggressive expansion.
  • Similarities: One-party, one-leader, anti-democracy, glorification of war, economic crisis as a cause.
• World War II (1939–1945):
  • Causes: Treaty of Versailles dissatisfaction, rise of fascism and nazism, policy of appeasement, failure of League of Nations, invasion of Poland by Germany (immediate cause).
  • Consequences: Defeat of Axis powers, division of Germany, formation of United Nations, start of Cold War.
  • US entry after Pearl Harbor attack by Japan (1941); atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945).

United Nations and Its Agencies

The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 to maintain international peace and security.

• Objectives: Maintain peace, develop friendly relations, promote cooperation, protect human rights, disarmament, decolonization, development.
• Main Organs:
  • General Assembly: World parliament, all member states, each with one vote, annual session from September to December.
  • Security Council: 15 members (5 permanent—China, France, Russia, UK, USA; 10 non-permanent), responsible for peace and security, veto power for permanent members.
  • International Court of Justice (ICJ): Judicial organ, 15 judges (9-year term), headquarters at The Hague, Netherlands, settles disputes and gives advisory opinions.
• Key Agencies:
  • UNICEF: Child welfare, health, nutrition, education, emergency relief.
  • WHO: Health improvement, disease prevention, immunization, research, safe water.
  • UNESCO: Education, science, culture, preservation of heritage, literacy, teacher training, cultural exchange.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

NAM emerged as a policy for newly independent countries to avoid alignment with power blocs during the Cold War.

• Meaning: Not aligning with any military or political bloc; maintaining independent foreign policy.
• Origins: Based on Panchsheel (five principles) signed between India and China (1954): mutual respect, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
• Founding Leaders: Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Tito (Yugoslavia), Nasser (Egypt).
• Objectives: Eliminate causes of war, protect freedom, oppose colonialism and racial discrimination, promote friendly relations, peaceful dispute settlement, oppose nuclear weapons, support UN, demand new economic order.
• Role of Nehru: Advocated NAM, opposed joining power blocs, promoted independent foreign policy, organized Bandung Conference, emphasized peaceful coexistence and cooperation among developing nations.