History Chapter 1 Haryana - Class 10 Haryana Board History

Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization

The Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization, flourished approximately 4000–5000 years ago. It was characterized by advanced urban planning, organized social structure, and significant achievements in architecture, trade, and culture. The civilization developed along the banks of the Saraswati and Sindhu (Indus) rivers, covering a vast area and exhibiting remarkable uniformity in its urban and economic systems.

Meaning and Origin of the Name

The term "Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization" combines references to two rivers and the concept of civilization. "Sindhu" is a Sanskrit word meaning a large water body or river, specifically the…

Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization

The Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization, flourished approximately 4000–5000 years ago. It was characterized by advanced urban planning, organized social structure, and significant achievements in architecture, trade, and culture. The civilization developed along the banks of the Saraswati and Sindhu (Indus) rivers, covering a vast area and exhibiting remarkable uniformity in its urban and economic systems.

Meaning and Origin of the Name

The term "Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization" combines references to two rivers and the concept of civilization. "Sindhu" is a Sanskrit word meaning a large water body or river, specifically the Indus River, which originates from the Mansarovar glacier and flows through present-day Ladakh and Pakistan into the Arabian Sea. "Saraswati" refers to a river mentioned in ancient texts, believed to have existed during the civilization's time but now extinct. "Sabhyata" means civilization, indicating a developed and organized way of life.

• The civilization emerged between the Saraswati and Sindhu rivers.
• Also known as Indus Valley Civilization, Harappan Civilization, and Saraswati–Sindhu Civilization.

Discovery and Archaeological Findings

The civilization was discovered during the construction of railway lines in 1856, when ancient bricks were found and used for building platforms. Systematic excavations began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, revealing the existence of a highly developed urban culture.

• 1856: Ancient bricks found during railway construction between Lahore and Karachi.
• 1870: Alexander Cunningham discovered a seal, initially misattributed to the Buddhist period.
• 1921: Dayaram Sahni excavated Harappa.
• 1922: Rakhaldas Banerjee excavated Mohenjo-daro.
• John Marshall, as Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, presented the civilization's significance to the world.

Geographical Extent and Major Sites

The civilization covered a vast area, stretching from Jammu in the north to Maharashtra in the south, and from Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh in the east to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan (now Pakistan) in the west.

• Total area: Approximately 2,15,000 sq. km.
• North–South extent: ~1400 km; East–West extent: ~1600 km.
• Major regions: Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Sindh, Baluchistan.
• Notable sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.

Chronology and Developmental Phases

The civilization's development is divided into three main phases based on archaeological and chronological evidence.

• Early Phase: 4000 BCE–2600 BCE, further divided into:

  • 4000–3200 BCE: Initial agricultural settlements.
  • 3200–2600 BCE: Transition to developed rural culture.

• Mature Phase: 2600–1900 BCE, marked by peak urban development and organization.

• Late Phase: 1900–1300 BCE, characterized by decline and reversion to rural culture.

• The script of the civilization remains undeciphered.

• Radiocarbon dating suggests origins as early as 7500–7000 BCE, with peak development by 2600 BCE.

Urban Planning and Architecture

Cities were meticulously planned with a pre-determined layout, featuring advanced drainage, standardized brick sizes, and distinct public and residential areas.

• Cities divided into two parts: Citadel (higher, administrative/public buildings) and lower town (residential).
• Main roads divided cities into sectors or blocks.
• Streets up to 9.15 meters wide in Mohenjo-daro.
• Emphasis on cleanliness: covered drains, roadside dustbins, and systematic waste disposal.
• Houses typically had 3–4 rooms, kitchens, courtyards, wells, and sometimes private toilets and staircases.
• Standardized brick ratios: 2:3:1 or 1:2:4 (length:width:height).

Artifacts, Seals, and Sculptures

Numerous artifacts, including stone and metal sculptures, terracotta figurines, and seals, provide insights into the civilization's culture and beliefs.

• Stone sculpture: Bearded man from Mohenjo-daro with detailed shawl and floral designs.
• Metal sculpture: Bronze "dancing girl" figure, possibly representing a dancer.
• Terracotta figurines: Represent men, women, animals, birds, and toys.
• Seals: Made of steatite, mostly square or rectangular, depicting animals (including unicorns), deities, and script.
• Seals likely used for trade authentication and security.
• Jewelry: Necklaces, bangles, rings made from gold, silver, stones, shells, ivory, and terracotta.

Social, Political, and Economic Life

The civilization exhibited a complex social structure, organized administration, and a diversified economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts, and trade.

• Social stratification evident from differences in housing and burial goods (gold/silver for the wealthy, terracotta/bone for the poor).
• Both men and women wore jewelry and adorned themselves with cosmetics; evidence of combs, mirrors, and beauty products.
• Entertainment included games like chess, dance, music, hunting, and toys for children.
• Political organization is unclear; theories suggest possible republican or priest-king rule, but no definitive evidence.
• Major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro may have served as capitals or administrative centers.

Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Trade

Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy, supplemented by animal husbandry and extensive trade networks.

• Main crops: Wheat, barley, rice, peas, mustard.
• Evidence of ploughed fields at Kalibangan and wooden ploughs at Banawali.
• Domesticated animals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, dogs, donkeys, pigs, horses, camels.
• Industries: Metalworking (copper, tin), pottery, brick-making, textile production, jewelry making.
• Trade: Internal trade via bullock carts; external trade with Mesopotamia via land and sea routes.
• Seals found in Mesopotamia indicate active trade relations.

Measurement Systems and Standardization

The civilization used standardized systems for weights and measures, facilitating trade and economic regulation.

• Weights and measures based on multiples of 16.
• Uniformity in measurement systems across the civilization.
• Standardized brick sizes and weight units ensured consistency in construction and commerce.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Religious life included worship of mother goddesses, proto-Shiva (Pashupati), animals, and nature. Evidence suggests ritual practices and belief in life after death.

• Mother goddess worship indicated by terracotta figurines.
• Pashupati seal depicts a yogic figure surrounded by animals, identified as proto-Shiva or Rudra.
• Worship of animals (unicorn, bull, snake) and sacred trees (peepal).
• Presence of linga (phallic symbol) suggests early Shaivism.
• Yoga and meditation postures depicted on seals.
• Burial practices: Three main methods—complete burial (head north, feet south), fractional burial (exposure to animals, then burial of bones), and cremation (ashes buried in urns).
• Grave goods indicate belief in afterlife and social differentiation.

Decline and Theories of Collapse

The decline of the civilization is attributed to multiple factors, with no single universally accepted cause.

• Possible reasons: Weakening administration, climate change (drought, drying of Saraswati river), floods, foreign invasions (Aryan theory), decline in trade, epidemics.
• Archaeological evidence shows deterioration in urban planning, cleanliness, and organization during the late phase.
• Theories remain debated among historians and archaeologists.